應力-能量張量
應力-能量張量(stress-energy tensor),也稱應力-能量-動量張量(stress-energy-momentum tensor)、能量-應力張量(energy-stress tensor)、能量-動量張量(energy-momentum tensor),在物理學中是一個張量,描述 能量與動量在時空中的密度與通量(flux),其為牛頓物理中應力張量的推廣。在廣義相對論中,其為重力場的源,一如牛頓重力理論中質量是重力場源一般。應力-能量張量具有重要的應用,尤其是在愛因斯坦場方程式。
目录 |
[编辑] 定義
請注意我們將全程使用到愛因斯坦取和原則。當用到座標表示,x0代表時間,其他座標項x1, x2及x3則為剩下的空間分量。
應力-能量張量為一個二階張量Tab,給出四維動量或4-動量之a分量通過一座標為常數xb之表面的通量。 另外要注意的是應力-能量張量是對稱(當自旋張量為零時),亦即
若自旋張量S非零,則
[编辑] 例子
此處舉出一些特例:
- T00
代表能量密度。
- T0i
代表能量通過xi表面之通量,等同於
- Ti0,
第i 動量之密度。
分量
- Tij
代表i 動量通過xj表面之通量。其中較特別的是:
- Tii
代表一個類似壓力與張應力的物理量——正向應力(normal stress),而
代表剪應力(shear stress)。
提醒:在固態物理與流體力學中,應力張量所指為應力-能量張量於共動參考系(comoving frame of reference)的空間分量。換句話說,工程學中的應力-能量張量與此處由動量對流項(momentum convective term)表示的應力-能量張量有所差異。
[编辑] 作為諾特流(Noether current)
應力-能量張量滿足連續性方程式(continuity equation)
.
此一物理量
是對一類空切面積分,得出能量-動量向量。分量Ta0因此可以詮釋為(非重力的)能量與動量之局域密度,而連續性方程式的第一分量
則單純是能量守恆的表述。空間分量Tij (i, j = 1, 2, 3)則對應到局域非重力的應力分量,其中包括了壓力。此一張量為與時空移動相應的守恆諾特流(Noether current)。
[编辑] 於廣義相對論中
上面所給的關係並不唯一決定此張量。在廣義相對論中,對稱形式的張量,也就是額外滿足了
- Tab = Tba
的關係的張量成為時空曲率的源,並且是與規範轉換(gauge transformation)相應的流密度(current density),在此是以座標轉換為例。若有扭率(torsion),則此張量就不再是對稱的。這對應到非零自旋張量的例子。參見愛因斯坦-嘉當重力。
在廣義相對論中,平直時空所用的偏導數(偏微分,partial derivative)修改為協變導數(covariant derivative)。這表示連續性方程式不再implies that the energy and momentum expressed by the tensor are absolutely conserved. In the classical limit of Newtonian gravity, this has a simple interpretation: energy is being exchanged with gravitational potential energy, which is not included in the tensor, and momentum is being transferred through the field to other bodies. 然然而在廣義相對論中,沒有辦法定義一個物理量對應到「重力場」能量與動量密度;任何膺張量(pseudo-tensor)意圖要定義這些東西可以局域地透過座標轉換使它們消失為零。In the general case, we must remain satisfied with a partial "covariant conservation" of the stress-energy tensor.
In curved spacetime, the spacelike integral now depends on the spacelike slice, in general. There is in fact no way to define a global energy-momentum vector in a general curved spacetime.
[编辑] 愛因斯坦場方程式
在廣義相對論中,應力-能量張量主要出現在愛因斯坦場方程式的研究題材中,方程式常寫為:
其中Rαβ為里奇張量, R為里奇純量(對里奇張量做張量縮併(tensor contraction)而得),以及G為宇宙重力常數(universal gravitational constant).
[编辑] 理想流體之相對論性應力張量
For an idealized fluid, with no viscosity and no heat conduction, the stress tensor takes on a particularly simple form:
,
where ρ is the mass-energy density (mass per unit 3-volume), p is the hydrostatic pressure, uα is the fluid's 4-velocity, and gαβ is the inverse metric of the manifold.
Furthermore, if the tensor components are being measured in a local inertial frame comoving with the fluid, then the metric tensor is simply Minkowski's metric
and the squared magnitude of the 4-velocity
.
The stress tensor is then a diagonal matrix:
[编辑] 各式各樣的應力-能量張量
There are a number of inequivalent stress-energy tensors out there.
[编辑] 正則(Canonical)應力-能量張量
This is the Noether current associated with spacetime translations. In flat spacetime, this isn't symmetric in general and if we have some gauge theory, it won't be gauge invariant because space-dependent gauge transformations obviously don't commute with spatial translations. In general relativity, the translations are with respect to the coordinate system and as such, don't transform covariantly. This is called a pseudostress-energy tensor.
[编辑] 希爾伯特應力-能量張量
This stress-energy tensor can only be defined in general relativity with a dynamical metric. It is defined as a functional derivative
where Smatter is the nongravitational part of the action. This is symmetric and gauge-invariant.
[编辑] Belinfante-Rosenfeld應力-能量張量
This is a symmetric and gauge-invariant stress energy tensor defined over flat spacetimes. There is a construction to get the Belinfante-Rosenfeld tensor from the canonical stress-energy tensor. In GR, this tensor agrees with the Hilbert stress-energy tensor. See the article Belinfante-Rosenfeld stress-energy tensor for more details.
[编辑] 膺張量(Pseudotensors)
Both the Einstein pseudotensor and the Landau-Lifschitz pseudotensor are pseudotensors.
[编辑] 相關條目
[编辑] 外部連結
- Lecture, Stephan Waner
- Caltech Tutorial on Relativity — A simple discussion of the relation between the Stress-Energy tensor of General Relativity and the metric











